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In the glorious history of ancient Egyptian civilization, since the Third Dynasty, the widespread use of stone not only reflects the supremacy of royal power, but also demonstrates the ancient Egyptians' pursuit of eternal architecture. However, the origin and development of stonemasonry techniques are still shrouded in mystery to this day.

1. The evolution of stonemasonry skills

The stonemasonry skills in ancient Egypt underwent a transition from small stonemasonry techniques to megalithic techniques, particularly marked by the Pyramid of Djoser complex. The Pyramid of Djoser, built in 2650 BC, is the tomb of Pharaoh Djoser of the Third Dynasty of ancient Egypt, designed by the renowned architect Imhotep. This pyramid is not only a major achievement in the history of ancient Egyptian architecture, but also the world's first giant building built entirely of stone.

The design inspiration for the Pyramid of Djoser comes from the early "Mastaba" tomb, which is a rectangular structure built with mud bricks and has a flat top. Over time, pharaohs hoped to reflect their authority and eternity through more magnificent architecture, so Imhotep gradually stacked the Mastaba to form a six story stepped pyramid. This design not only visually stunning, but also symbolizes the pharaoh's "ladder" to the heavens.

The overall height of the Pyramid of Djoser is about 60 meters, with a base length of about 143 meters. The entire complex covers an area of 37 acres and is surrounded by rectangular walls. There are multiple temples and courtyards inside. The exterior of the pyramid is made of limestone, while the interior is designed with complex burial chambers and passages to protect the pharaoh's body and burial objects.

During the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser, architect Imhotep used a large amount of limestone blocks, and the cutting and transportation techniques for these blocks were quite advanced at the time. Archaeologists estimate that approximately 2.3 million pieces of stone were used to construct this pyramid, with each piece weighing an average of around 2.5 tons. This precise cutting and tight stitching ensure that the structure of the pyramid remains stable for thousands of years.

In addition, the ancient Egyptians also developed lifting and transportation machinery, using simple lever principles and pulley systems to carry heavy objects. This technological advancement laid the foundation for later megalithic architecture.

The Pyramid of Djoser not only reached its peak in technology, but also demonstrated the extraordinary confidence of ancient Egyptians in art. The exterior design of the pyramid reflects the ancient Egyptians' understanding and application of geometric shapes, presenting a stable and solemn atmosphere as a whole. Each layer of the pyramid has been carefully designed, with the exterior limestone polished to a smooth surface that reflects dazzling light, symbolizing the sanctity and eternity of the pharaoh.

2. Building Materials and Technology

There are various types of stone used in ancient Egyptian architecture, including limestone, granite, and sandstone, each with its specific purpose and source.

Limestone is the most commonly used stone in ancient Egyptian architecture, mainly used for the outer layer of pyramids and the walls of other buildings. Its texture is relatively soft, easy to carve and process, suitable for decorative details and foundations of large buildings. The outer layer of the Pyramid of Giza is made of high-quality white limestone from the Tula quarry, which is not only beautiful but also has good durability.

Granite is a hard stone material mainly used for constructing important structures such as tombs, passages, and stone coffins. Due to its high hardness, ancient Egyptians typically used copper or bronze tools when processing granite. The granite quarries in the Aswan region were the main source of this type of stone for the ancient Egyptians. The mining and processing techniques for granite were relatively complex, usually requiring the use of flamed finish and water cooling methods to make the rock more prone to cracking.

Sandstone has low hardness and is relatively easy to mine and process, making it widely used in construction. Due to its softness, sandstone is commonly used for carving and decorative elements, making it suitable for walls in temples and other religious buildings.

The quarrying technique in ancient Egypt varied with the conditions of the quarry and the hardness of the rock. Quarrymen usually choose different mining methods based on the characteristics of the stone.

Limestone and sandstone were commonly mined by the ancient Egyptians using open-pit mining methods. In the quarry, workers will first chisel out separation joints and then use levers to pry out the stones. This method is very effective in the mining of limestone and sandstone.

For hard rocks such as granite, ancient Egyptians may have chosen the method of underground excavation. By digging tunnels, they were able to reach deeper layers of rock and use techniques such as flamed finish and water cooling to make the rock more fragile and easier to mine.

The ancient Egyptians used various tools in quarrying and processing stone, including copper chisels, stone hammers, and wooden wedges. With the development of technology, bronze and iron tools have gradually been introduced, further improving the efficiency of stone processing.

The ancient Egyptians utilized the convenient transportation of the Nile River to transport stone from quarries to construction sites. During transportation, they use simple tools such as wooden sleds and slides to drag stones weighing several tons to their destination. Archaeologists have found that the ancient Egyptians may have also laid water soaked fine sand on the road when transporting stones to reduce friction and make it easier to move the stones.

When processing stone, ancient Egyptian craftsmen used different cutting and carving techniques based on the nature and purpose of the stone. For hard stones such as granite, craftsmen will use heavy hammers and chisels for detailed carving to ensure that the shape and size of the stone meet the building requirements.

3. Building Technology and Practice

Although the stonemasonry techniques of the Third Dynasty displayed exquisite craftsmanship in appearance, there were significant shortcomings in terms of structural strength and durability. For example, in the construction process of the Pyramid of Djoser, in order to pursue aesthetic appearance, the stones were polished so that they could be precisely joined to each other with only a few centimeters of gap, but this precise joining came at the cost of sacrificing structural robustness. Over time, the gaps between the stones rapidly increase, posing a threat to the stability of the building.

The ancient Egyptians demonstrated their technological innovation in the transportation and handling of stone. They took advantage of the Nile River to transport the stone from the quarry to the construction site. During transportation, the ancient Egyptians used simple tools such as wooden sleds and slides to drag stones weighing several tons to their destination. Archaeologists have found that the ancient Egyptians may have also laid water soaked fine sand on the road when transporting stones to reduce friction and make it easier to move the stones.

In architectural practice, the dynamic problems faced by ancient Egyptians were mainly reflected in the technical limitations on lifting and moving heavy objects. For example, the construction of pyramids required lifting huge stones to a considerable height, while the technology and tools at that time were relatively primitive. Scholars have proposed various hypotheses, including the use of auxiliary ramps, lever lifting, pulley principles, etc., but there is still no unified consensus. These methods require precise mechanical calculations and a profound understanding of the mechanical properties of materials, which undoubtedly posed a huge challenge for the ancient Egyptians.

The challenges faced by ancient Egyptians in architectural technology mainly came from the processing of stone and the stability of building structures. They need to complete the cutting, handling, and precise placement of stone without modern mechanical equipment. In addition, they also need to address the stability issues of building structures, especially when constructing large buildings on soft alluvial soil.

4. Building Structure and Stability

The stability of the foundation of ancient Egyptian architecture is mainly manifested in its dependence on soft alluvial soil. For example, in the Temple of Karnak, some of the largest city walls were built with only 45 centimeters of sand laid at the bottom of a ditch as a foundation. This foundation treatment method is particularly vulnerable in the face of natural disasters such as floods. In a flood in November 1899, 11 huge stone pillars of the Temple of Karnak were washed away, and later it was discovered that the foundation of the pillars was only some fragile small stones randomly placed in the cave.

The ancient Egyptians had some peculiar principles in the polishing and laying of stones, which can confuse modern stonemasons. Their attention was too focused on the layer joints and rising joints on the exterior of the wall, to the extent that the connections between the stones inside the wall were almost completely ignored. The most surprising thing is that the rising seam often tilts towards the layering line or outer surface line, and the height of the stones in the same layer may sometimes be different.

The various shapes and sizes of stones used in this construction method obviously bring a lot of trouble to craftsmen. At the beginning, the upward joints between these stones were clearly not adjusted on the spot, which means they were only done after the stones were already in place. Before masonry, the stones are arranged in rows and connected end-to-end to make the sides of the two stones roughly parallel at the joint. The final adjustment is achieved by changing the inclination of the shaking table. This construction method has an impact on the stability of the building, as the contact surfaces between the stones have been processed relatively flat, and dry joints are completely feasible. Therefore, it can be considered that plaster is not used for bonding purposes.

Despite these challenges, the ancient Egyptians successfully built magnificent buildings such as pyramids through continuous technological innovation. For example, the construction of a pyramid requires a solid foundation. Ancient Egyptian architects used a large amount of labor and stones to carefully lay the foundation of the pyramids. These foundations ensure the stability of the pyramid and prevent the problem of foundation subsidence. The structure of the pyramid follows precise geometric principles, gradually reducing from top to bottom to form a perfect equilateral triangle, ensuring the stability of the structure. The design fully utilizes the high-strength characteristics of triangles and enhances the seismic resistance of pyramids.

Starting from the Fourth Dynasty, the technology of Egyptian stone architecture stagnated, and even deteriorated during the New Kingdom period. The Fourth Dynasty is considered the "Age of Honor" of ancient Egypt, with its most prominent symbol being the construction of pyramids. However, after the Fourth Dynasty, although the scale of architecture remained grand, there was a trend of stagnation or even degradation in technological innovation and building quality. During the New Kingdom period (around the 16th century BC to the 11th century BC), although the architectural framework and spatial organization were very mature, the level of refinement and technological innovation in architecture did not surpass previous generations.

During the New Kingdom period, although the joint treatment of the walls still required careful handling, inferior materials and poor connectors were used for internal filling. Many temple tower doors were only made of crushed stone, and the intersecting walls inside were also weak. Only by dividing the space into smaller units could the structure be stabilized.

5. Special issues of pyramid architecture

The basic structure of a pyramid is composed of boulders, sand, and limestone, with the base typically being an almost perfect square. The entire structure can be divided into two parts: the exterior facade and the interior space. The exterior surface is covered with flat stones, while the interior contains a series of channels, burial chambers, and cavities. The shape of a pyramid is composed of four triangular planes, which intersect to form the appearance of the pyramid. Each triangular plane has equal side lengths and angles, making the appearance of the pyramid appear uniform.

The stability of a pyramid is the key to its structural design. The interior of the pyramid is composed of many sturdy stones or bricks, which are precisely stacked together to form a sturdy and stable structure. The spatial design inside the pyramid also helps to distribute pressure, making the entire building more stable. In addition, the foundation design of the pyramid is also very important, as it is built on hard rock to ensure the stability of the entire building.

The interior of the pyramid is designed with complex spatial structures, including long corridors, enclosed halls, and so on. These spatial structures not only increase the stability of the pyramid, but also serve as mysterious symbolic meanings, making the pyramid a religious site. For example, the right angled triangular chambers inside the Pyramid of Giza, with a ratio of 3:4:5 on each side, embody the numerical value of the Pythagorean theorem. This design not only provides structural stability, but also demonstrates the wisdom of ancient Egyptians mathematically.

The construction process of pyramids is a huge and complex project. The ancient Egyptians used various methods to transport large stones, and for smaller stones, workers could transport them by hand or using simple tools such as pulleys and slides. For huge stones, the ancient Egyptians used pulleys and livestock such as cows to pull them, or transported them by water from nearby quarries to construction sites.

The anti-theft facilities of the pyramid are uniquely designed, for example, the anti-theft system of the Khufu Pyramid includes two anti-theft facilities. The first anti-theft device is to place three hard granite sealing stones pre stored in the main corridor channel along the sloping ramp of the ascending passage, tightly sealing the entrance and ascending passage of the pyramid. The second anti-theft device is located in the small room of the anti-theft system in front of the horizontal corridor at the entrance of the king's tomb. There used to be granite boulders that were 1.9 meters long, 1.2 meters wide, and about 1.5 meters high, weighing nearly 10 tons.

6. Design and construction of temple architecture

The ground of ancient Egyptian temples was usually made up of randomly assembled stones that were completely buried in the soil, and their surfaces were leveled on the spot. The column base is either made up of small stones that penetrate the pavement and are placed underneath, or placed directly on the pavement. Occasionally, they are placed on shallow circular protrusions left by the stone paving process. This design not only ensures the stability of the structure, but also reflects the exquisite handling of details.

Pillars are either made of a single stone or composite, representing two main origins in two different forms. A type of column belonging to the same form as the architecture of Saqqara of the Third Dynasty, with the origin of the column head form being plants such as papyrus, lotus, and palm; Another type more closely reflects the sturdy straight column form used to support the roof inside the stone mine. The main pillar hall of the Temple of Karnak covers an area of over 5000 square meters, with 134 stone pillars arranged in 16 rows. The central two rows are particularly large, with each pillar reaching a height of 21 meters and a diameter of 3.57 meters. It can accommodate 100 people standing on top of it.

Since the Fourth Dynasty, roofs have generally been laid horizontally, so it is necessary to pay great attention to how to make the joints waterproof and protect the indoor paint from moisture damage. Starting from the Middle Kingdom period, people solved this problem by embedding small, finely trimmed stone edges between the raised roof panels. In order to discharge rainwater, sometimes a slope with a certain drop is made on the roof, and sometimes a mosaic made of small stones is pasted on the roof to guide the water flow to the drainage pipe protruding from the wall for discharge.

At the junction between the inner wall and ceiling, there are usually many holes for lighting and ventilation, replacing windows. The reason for opening a hole at this location is speculated to minimize the potential damage caused by weather conditions. The windows that truly provide high side light did not appear until the New Kingdom period. Later on, it evolved from a single block window to a window with a grille.

7. Building environment issues

Over time, the buildings surrounding the temple were repeatedly rebuilt, causing the temple floor to rise and leading to drainage issues.

The problem of elevated floors in ancient Egyptian temples was mainly due to frequent construction activities in the surrounding areas, resulting in relative subsidence of the temple area. For example, in the temples of Luxor and Karnak, due to extensive irrigation of nearby farmland, the water level of the Nile River is rising, and the degree of building salinization is deepening, causing continuous erosion of the temple complex. In some areas, the Nile River has risen by as much as 1.5 meters, and at the same time, salinization is eroding the pigments used for columns and statues.

Originally, the temple served as the center of the community, but over time, the surrounding architectural activities and changes in the natural environment have affected its original function and status. For example, the Temple of Abu Simbel has undergone multiple renovations and expansions in history. Its architecture is grand, deep and wide, facing north to south, with a front hall and a back bedroom, covering an area of over 30000 square meters. These changes not only affected the physical structure of the temple, but also its position in society and culture.